Written by Jeanette Wong, edited by Darren Teo
Content Warning: This essay contains quotations of derogatory slurs (s*ssy) against effeminate man.
Fig. 1: Ending credits of Super Mario after a player has completed the quest. (Source: WordPress.org)[efn_note] Ending game screen of Mario saving Princess Peach in Super Mario Bros. “Mario saves Princess Peach in Super Mario Bros. game.” by James Sarmiento is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND 2.0. To view a copy of this liscense, visit https://wordpress.org/openverse/photos/a1a962ca-96cc-4b88-a9e9-673cdd128e1c. [/efn_note]
The game screen turns black, an intermittent pause before the credits start rolling. At the bottom of the screen, the male hero Mario is standing next to Princess Peach. Playing as Mario, you have successfully rescued the princess! Your journey completes, and you venture forth into the next world.
The quest repeats.
…
Almost any individual with exposure to the gaming landscape is guaranteed to have heard of the popular video game franchise Super Mario. Starring the male protagonist Mario, the common centrifugal force behind Mario’s adventures is his central mission to rescue the female protagonist, Princess Peach, from villains.[efn_note]Shugart, Helene A. “Counterhegemonic Acts: Appropriation as a Feminist Rhetorical Strategy.” Quarterly Journal of Speech 83, no. 2 (1997): 210–29. https://doi.org/10.1080/00335639709384181.[/efn_note] This narrative trope of depicting a male hero rescuing a damsel—where the female character acts as a foil to highlight the male character’s dominance—has been extensively employed in multiple video games such as The Legend of Zelda and Star Wars. [efn_note]Curtis, E. D. “In the Game of Patriarchy: The Damsel in Distress Narrative in Video Games.” Semantic Scholar, January 1, 1970.https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/In-the-game-of-patriarchy%3A-The-damsel-in-distress-Curtis/7cf30e0952ec933c10045d51f2ed4de04c015e4b.[/efn_note]The utilisation of video games as platforms for reproducing gendered narratives has only grown with their increasing popularity. The narrative lore and visual characteristics of characters have the potential to act as vehicular embodiments of masculinity. This allows players to immerse themselves in this realm to actively “perform” certain representations of masculinity.
According to a comparative research study of Chinese virtual games by Huan (2021), whilst there is a growing diversity of gendered images in Chinese games due to modernisation, traditional gender stereotypes are prioritised.[efn_note]Huan, Yining. “Female Representation in Chinese Otome Games: Comparative Research on Three Famous Games from 2017 to 2021.” Advances in Social Science, Education and Humanities Research, vol. 637, 2021, pp. 964–970., https://doi.org/10.2991/assehr.k.220131.175.[/efn_note] This has been linked to governmental censorship of Chinese games which regulates and maintains traditional gendered representations in media discourses.[efn_note]Williams, Emily, “BL and Danmei The Similarities and Differences Between Male x Male Content and its Fans in Japan and China” (2020). Honors Projects. 501. https://scholarworks.bgsu.edu/honorsprojects/501.[/efn_note] In order to understand governmental censorship of certain gendered images, we first need to understand the Chinese government’s conception of ideal masculinity. In China, one’s physical appearance is a crucial factor in determining and shaping beliefs surrounding one’s gender identity. This belief is inculcated from young and reflected in laws. For instance, a country-wide extension of physical education class durations for boys was implemented to reproduce the narrative that physical strength and a muscular build are essential components of masculinity.[efn_note] Wang, Zixu, Xin Chen, and Caroline Radnofsky. “China Proposes Teaching Masculinity to Boys as State Is Alarmed by Changing Gender Roles.” NBCNews.com. NBCUniversal News Group, March 8, 2021. https://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/china-proposes-teaching-masculinity-boys-state-alarmed-changing-gender-roles-n1258939.[/efn_note]
Furthermore, officials sought to ban male idols with dyed hair and dressier clothing styles, attributing these traits to a “feminized appearance.”[efn_note]Zhang, Phoebe. “China Releases Plan to Ban ‘Sissy Idols’, Promote a ‘Correct Beauty Standard’.” South China Morning Post, 6 Sept. 2021, https://www.scmp.com/news/people-culture/china-personalities/article/3147354/china-calls-boycott-overly-entertaining.[/efn_note] Through these policies and statements, we can infer that the state’s ideal masculine identity comprises physical capability and the preference for sports over leisure activities and the arts—activities considered feminine.
Fig. 2: A slideshow during an annual meeting between Chinese broadcasting regulators and game companies like Tencent, characterising Venti from Genshin Impact as effeminate. (Source: thenerdstash.com)[efn_note] Rasidi, Sidharta F. “China Is Looking to Ban Games with Japanese Influence and Effeminate Males.” The Nerd Stash, 29 Sept. 2021, https://thenerdstash.com/china-is-looking-to-ban-games-with-japanese-influence-and-effeminate-males/.[/efn_note]
These ideals have already been implemented in Chinese games. In fact, broadcasting regulations of game content have tightened since 2021. Gaming companies like Tencent were allegedly “ordered” to “step up the examination of games’ content”, being careful to omit sexual and violent scenes, homosexual themes, or content that supported “money-worship and effeminacy.”[efn_note]Elstrom, Peter, et al. “China Slows Game Approvals to Enforce Strict New Rules.” Bloomberg.com, Bloomberg, 16 Sept. 2021, https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2021-09-16/china-is-said-to-slow-game-approvals-to-enforce-strict-new-rules.[/efn_note]Chinese broadcasters specifically targeted representations of gender in-game content during a meeting with game companies:
“Traditionally, when people talk about s*ssification, they are referring to males that act feminine in terms of actions and conduct. In this context, we are referring to those whose appearance, conduct, and speech deliberately try to invoke a female aesthetic. In the Asia cultural environment, there are differences between neutral gender, cross-dressing [handsome males], and traps. In this presentation, we don’t have the time to discuss these difference in detail, so we will focus on the [player’s] subjective experience
(refer to the left Fig. 2; the meaning of the Chinese words highlighted on the slides)[efn_note] Rasidi, Sidharta F. “China Is Looking to Ban Games with Japanese Influence and Effeminate Males.” The Nerd Stash, 29 Sept. 2021, https://thenerdstash.com/china-is-looking-to-ban-games-with-japanese-influence-and-effeminate-males/.[/efn_note]
Evidently, games have been historically viewed as avenues through which gender identity can be influenced. China’s multi-billion-earning video game Genshin Impact is no exception.[efn_note]Baggs, Michael. “Genshin Impact Earns $2 Billion after ‘Unheard of’ Success in First Year.” BBC News. BBC, September 30, 2021. https://www.bbc.com/news/newsbeat-58707297.[/efn_note] In September 2021, China’s broadcasting regulators announced possible future decisions to ban “effeminate” in-game male characters.[efn_note]Timmins, Beth. “China’s Media Cracks down on ‘Effeminate’ Styles.” BBC News. BBC, September 2, 2021. https://www.bbc.com/news/business-58394906.[/efn_note] Making reference to Venti, one of Genshin Impact’s male characters, broadcasting regulators emphasised the importance of rejecting in-game characters that border on “s*ssy” and “abnormal.”[efn_note]Agossah, Iyane. “Azur Lane, Girls’ Frontline Censored – What Happened, Will It Affect Genshin Impact?” Gaming News. Accessed December 30, 2021. https://www.dualshockers.com/azur-lane-girls-frontline-censored-genshin-explained/. [/efn_note] Here, assumptions about Venti’s innate personality traits and behaviour were constructed purely on the basis of his physical appearance.
Fig. 3: Venti’s in-game splash art. (Source: Forbes.com)[efn_note]Tassi, Paul. “Genshin Impact Venti Build: The Best Builds, Artifacts and Bows (1.4 Edition).” Forbes. Forbes Magazine, March 17, 2021. https://www.forbes.com/sites/paultassi/2021/03/17/genshin-impact-venti-build-the-best-builds-artifacts-and-bows-14-edition/?sh=57d991efb244.[/efn_note]
Characterised as a citizen from a region based in Germany, Venti’s official clothing design consists of “a frilly white top” fashioned with a “corset-like leather midsection”, teal coloured shorts with a similarly coloured cape held together by a ribbon, white stockings, and a beret with a flower accessory.[efn_note]“Venti.” Genshin Impact Wiki, https://genshin-impact.fandom.com/wiki/Venti.[/efn_note] With partially-dyed, accessorised, braided hair and a non-muscular androgynous slim build, Venti lacks any apparent sense of strong-headedness and physical ability expected from the state’s masculine discourse. Instead, the frills and stockings worn by Venti—clothing traditionally worn by German girls—add a feminine and “softer” note to his overall appearance.
“A bard that seems to have arrived on some unknown wind sometimes — sings songs as old as the hills, and other times recites poems fresh and new.”
An excerpt from Venti’s introduction on Genshin Impact’s official website Genshin impact – step into a vast magical world of adventure. [efn_note] Mihoyo. Accessed December 30, 2021. https://genshin.mihoyo.com/en/character/mondstadt?char=7. [/efn_note]
Rather than being characterised as a valiant warrior, Venti has an easy-going, carefree attitude, with a strong inclination towards the arts (as demonstrated by his mastery of the lyre, a musical instrument). Venti also periodically immerses himself in the literary scene of his country, with his longitudinal participation in the art scene taking precedence over his participation in Genshin Impact’s world of combat. Coupled with his assumed feminised appearance, Genshin Impact’s rendition of Venti does not seem to conform to traditional Chinese standards of masculinity. As such, the authorities’ rejection of Venti as a character comes with little surprise. However, I propose that male characters like Venti in Genshin Impact do not reject traditional masculine ideals. Instead, their personifications act to revitalise traditional Chinese masculine narratives.
The history of masculinity in China — the cultural framework of wen(文) and wu(武)
Garnering a better understanding of Chinese masculinity requires an analysis of past historical-cultural narratives of manhood, one based on the wen-wu(文武) schema. From the Song Dynasty (960-1279 CE) to Qing Dynasty (1644-1912 CE), a muscular, physically tough image of a man was associated with Western cultureMac, Gladys. “From ‘Little Fresh Meat’ to ‘Wolf Warriors’: Understanding Chinese Masculinity in Pop Culture.” [efn_note]RADII, July 31, 2020. https://radiichina.com/chinese-masculinity-pop-culture/.%5B/mfn [/efn_note] Meanwhile, Chinese men historically sought to embody beauty and grace, knowledge in the cultural arts, and emotionality, in order to achieve ideal masculinity—one that successfully combined both aspects of wen and wu masculinity.
Fig. 4: Visual representations of wen masculinity (left of figure) and wu masculinity (right of figure). (Source: Radiichina.com)[efn_note] Mac, Gladys. “From ‘Little Fresh Meat’ to ‘Wolf Warriors’: Understanding Chinese Masculinity in Pop Culture.” RADII, July 31, 2020. https://radiichina.com/chinese-masculinity-pop-culture/. Wen and Wu masculinity by Helen Haoyi Yu is licensed under Radii.[/efn_note]
At the core of its being, wen(文) masculinity requires individuals to exercise restraint and modesty, while being recognised as an erudite individual. In the past, the character profile of a cultured and civilised scholar—an individual with a humble disposition embodying the refined intellectualism of the gentry class—typifies ideal wen(文) masculinity traits. Exalted as connoisseurs and masters in the arts, these individuals were expected to maintain elegance under the gaze of others in the public sphere. This seems similar to how individuals were expected to excel in the arts to pass ancient Chinese state examinations, a clear indication that knowledge of tradition and cultural crafts aligned with a man’s capability and masculinity in historical China. Additionally, maintaining smooth white skin was amongst the many traits often sought for, in comparison to the robust characteristics of military men. Contrarily, the central focus of wu(武) masculinity was on an individual’s display of physical prowess within the martial arts scene. Associated with the military, men with wu masculinity were physically imagined as muscular and aggressive, often attributed to men belonging to the lower social class of society. An ideal masculine identity then called for achieving equanimity between the wen and wu domains in this framework. By embodying both literary talent and military strength, men were considered to successfully demonstrate wen wu shuang quan (文武双全), a man balancing both wen and wu masculinity.[efn_note]Mac, Gladys. “From ‘Little Fresh Meat’ to ‘Wolf Warriors’: Understanding Chinese Masculinity in Pop Culture.” RADII, July 31, 2020. https://radiichina.com/chinese-masculinity-pop-culture/.%5B/mfn.[/efn_note]Yet, characteristics of wen masculinity were preferred over wu, especially since scholars accrued more capital and were regarded as superior to military members.
Since the mid-1990s, notions of a “softer” more “delicate” form of masculinity subscribing to wen masculinity traits, have garnered greater appeal than a Westernized macho manhood Song, Geng. “Chinese Masculinities Revisited: Male Images in Contemporary Television Drama Serials.”[efn_note] Modern China 36, no. 4 (2010): 404–34. http://www.jstor.org/stable/25699442.[/efn_note]
Chinese masculinity and the wen-wu(文武) schema in Genshin Impact
So how is this framework reflected in the contemporary landscape of Genshin Impact? Returning to Venti’s character, although the carefree personality framing his “soft” appearance seems to be emasculating as it deviates from the military abrasiveness of wu masculinity, his virtual persona seems to subscribe towards wen masculinity. Despite his playful personality, Venti is described to be wise—frequently engaging in philosophical pursuits through his poetry, which is symbolic of his intellectual engagements as a scholar portraying wen masculinity traits. His respected position as a connoisseur of music, art and poetry, gives him a stronghold over the wen dimension of masculinity. Consequently, it is implied that Venti has military combat experience in his character lore, due to his participation in a war—a trait of wen masculinity. This trait is further emphasised by Venti being a character for players to use when exploring the combat mechanics of the game. Thus, these two dimensions of masculinity—wen and wu—coexist in Venti to varying degrees. Therefore, one can claim that Venti does not stray from ideals of masculinity, but successfully portrays a “feminized type of manhood” according to Chinese conceptions of masculinity.
The framework of wen-wu masculinity can be applied to other male characters in Genshin Impact. Particularly, two Chinese male characters, Zhongli and Xingqiu, fit this description.
Fig. 5: Zhongli in-game art. (Source: Genshin.hoyoverse.com)[efn_note] Genshin impact – step into a vast magical world of adventure. Mihoyo. Accessed December 31, 2021. https://genshin.mihoyo.com/en/character/liyue?char=9.[/efn_note]
Zhongli is physically depicted to exude elegance in his formal attire, which consists of a dress shirt and waistcoat. Additionally, his in-game narrative fortifies his status as a war god, acknowledging his physical capabilities and military strength, and allowing him to successfully fulfil the criteria of wu masculinity. However, according to his character narrative, Zhongli is also widely respected due to his knowledge of traditional customs and practices, with pastimes including appreciating the cultural arts scene of his country, and listening to plays and storytellers“Zhongli/Lore.” [efn_note]Genshin Impact Wiki, https://genshin-impact.fandom.com/wiki/Zhongli/Lore.[/efn_note] Depicted as having a stern, humble and reserved personality, Zhongli deviates from the stereotypical dominant male of the West, taking on a more “soft” stance and resigning himself to the life of a scholar in accordance with wen masculinity.
Fig. 6: Xingqiu in-game splash art. (Source: Gamersdecide.com)[efn_note]Moreno, Elias. “[Top 5] Genshin Impact Xingqiu Best Builds.” GamersDecide.com. Accessed December 31, 2021. https://www.gamersdecide.com/articles/genshin-impact-xingqiu-best-builds.[/efn_note]
Xingqiu is another character who embodies characteristics of wen-wu masculinity in Genshin Impact. Characterised as an avid reader, Xingqiu is an author well-versed in the literary arts. However, Xingqiu is also a respected swordsman, known for his martial ability. Although Xingqiu’s outfit has frills and appears “dressier” as a coat, his costume is also influenced by the adolescent male Chinese hanfu.[efn_note]“Xingqiu/Lore.” Genshin Impact Wiki, https://genshin-impact.fandom.com/wiki/Xingqiu/Lore.[/efn_note]Therefore despite not being overtly muscular or aggressive, his ability to negotiate both the wen and wu domains of masculinity still characterises him as an ideal masculine man in accordance with the wen-wu schema, as both a respected scholar and a capable, valiant warrior.
Though the wen-wu model takes precedence over portrayals of masculinity in Genshin Impact, the game itself explores other representations of masculinity. One example is that of a male character called Thoma, who takes up the position of a housekeeper in the private domain despite his secondary position as a military guard.[efn_note]“Thoma/Lore.” Genshin Impact Wiki, https://genshin-impact.fandom.com/wiki/Thoma/Lore.[/efn_note] Here, Thoma embodies both a stereotypical feminine position of housekeeping, balanced out with his display of martial prowess. Another example is a newly added in-game character called Itto, who is visually more muscular than any of the characters mentioned above. Itto is evidently talented in martial arts. Yet, he does not neglect the cultural arts—he participates in cultural singing competitions, albeit rarely “Arataki Itto/Lore.”[efn_note] Genshin Impact Wiki, https://genshin-impact.fandom.com/wiki/Arataki_Itto/Lore.[/efn_note] While Thoma embodies wu masculinity more strongly, the presence of wen masculinity traits are still evident.
…
As we analyse the various representations of the male in-game characters in Genshin Impact, we find that a singular, definitive form of masculinity does not exist. Masculinity exists on a spectrum, and its definition remains contingent across time. What was dictated as an ideal form of manhood during historical periods appears starkly different from modern conceptions of masculinity. Yet, while the Chinese government may take a stance against portrayals of men in games like Genshin Impact, it is important to note that these male in-game characters do not deviate from traditional ideals of masculinity. Instead, they are but representations of traditional wen-wu masculine ideals.
